When we stay with a decision even if there is clear evidence its wrong, it refers to ____.

When we stay with a decision even if there is clear evidence its wrong, it refers to ____.

a. anchoring bias

b. confirmation bias

c. risk aversion

d. escalation of commitment

e. availability bias


Answer: d. escalation of commitment

Which term refers to setting on initial information and not sufficiently altering for subsequent information?

Which term refers to setting on initial information and not sufficiently altering for subsequent information?

a. Escalation of commitment

b. Confirmation bias

c. Risk aversion

d. Availability bias

e. Anchoring bias


Answer: e. Anchoring bias

Raj has interviewed at 28 places for a job. He chooses the first acceptable job offer he encounters, rather than the optimal one. Which term describes Raj's choice?

Raj has interviewed at 28 places for a job. He chooses the first acceptable job offer he encounters, rather than the optimal one. Which term describes Raj's choice?

a. Halo effect

b. Satisficing

c. Consistency

d. Fundamental attribution error

e. Self-serving bias


Answer: b. Satisficing

Bianca is known for making consistent, value-maximizing choices within specified constraints. She can be described as ____.

Bianca is known for making consistent, value-maximizing choices within specified constraints. She can be described as ____.

a. Machiavellian

b. deep acting

c. rational

d. narcissistic

e. surface acting


Answer: c. rational

In intuitive decision making, we typically ____.

In intuitive decision making, we typically ____.

a. arrive at a decision that proves to be less effective than when we use rationality

b. rely upon an objective decision-making process

c. contradict decisions made through a more rational process

d. examine only parts of the problem

e. engage our emotions and previous experience


Answer: e. engage our emotions and previous experience

The second step in the rational decision-making process is to ____.

The second step in the rational decision-making process is to ____.

a. identify the decision criteria

b. use your experience to create hunches

c. look for tried-and-true answers

d. satisfice, or seek a "good enough" solution

e. engage the emotions during the process


Answer: a. identify the decision criteria

Ramona graduated six month ago. She has been regularly applying for jobs since before she graduated. Which of these best describes Ramona's situation of not having a job?

Ramona graduated six month ago. She has been regularly applying for jobs since before she graduated. Which of these best describes Ramona's situation of not having a job?

a. Potential

b. A consensus

c. An opportunity

d. A decision

e. A problem


Answer: e. A problem

Riya has to make a choice between taking a 6-month co-op internship at Marriott or a regular summer internship at Under Armour. Riya is faced with a(n) ____.

Riya has to make a choice between taking a 6-month co-op internship at Marriott or a regular summer internship at Under Armour. Riya is faced with a(n) ____.

a. problem

b. consensus

c. uncertainty

d. decision

e. opportunity


Answer: d. decision

If you are facing discrepancy between your current state of affairs and a different desired state, it describes ____.

If you are facing discrepancy between your current state of affairs and a different desired state, it describes ____.

a. consensus issue

b. a decision

c. a consistency issue

d. a problem

e. distinctiveness behavior


Answer: d. a problem

If you are making a choice from among two or more alternatives, you are ____.

If you are making a choice from among two or more alternatives, you are ____.

a. creating a problem

b. showing consistency

c. making a decision

d. developing consensus

e. exhibiting distinctiveness


Answer: c. making a decision

We generally need to make decision when we perceive there is a(n) ____.

We generally need to make decision when we perceive there is a(n) ____.

a. bias

b. alternative

c. stereotype

d. problem

e. perception


Answer: d. problem

Better decisions can be made by ____.

Better decisions can be made by ____.

a. seeking to validate an idea already held by many in the organization

b. reacting only to problems that everyone agrees upon

c. weighing every possible alternative to a solution before acting

d. recognizing potential perceptual biases during the decision process

e. selecting information from only one source


Answer: d. recognizing potential perceptual biases during the decision process

Which term describes the tendency when people attribute vague information as relatively flattering, accept positive feedback, and reject negative feedback?

Which term describes the tendency when people attribute vague information as relatively flattering, accept positive feedback, and reject negative feedback?

a. Stereotyping

b. Self-serving bias

c. Selective perception

d. Halo effect

e. Fundamental attribution error


Answer: b. Self-serving bias

When you observe Lexi, you see that she displays different behaviors in different situations. According to attribution theory, which of the following describes Lexi's behavior?

When you observe Lexi, you see that she displays different behaviors in different situations. According to attribution theory, which of the following describes Lexi's behavior?

a. Distinctiveness

b. Consistency

c. Consensus

d. Conscientious

e. Narcissism


a. Distinctiveness

The three factors of attribution theory are ____, ____, and ____.

The three factors of attribution theory are ____, ____, and ____.

a. intra, internal, external

b. agreeable, conscientious, emotional stability

c. distinctiveness, consensus, consistency

d. Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy

e. intuitive, sensing, judging


Answer: c. distinctiveness, consensus, consistency

____ tries to explain the ways we judge people differently, depending on the meaning we assign to a behavior.

____ tries to explain the ways we judge people differently, depending on the meaning we assign to a behavior.

a. Machiavellian theory

b. Emotional dissonance theory

c. Affective events theory

d. Attribution theory

e. Personality-job fit theory


Answer: d. Attribution theory

If Jason, Jamie, Julie, and John face a similar situation and respond in the same way, we can say their behavior shows ____.

If Jason, Jamie, Julie, and John face a similar situation and respond in the same way, we can say their behavior shows ____.

a. Machiavellian attitude

b. narcsissim

c. conscientiousness

d. consensus

e. distinctiveness


Answer: d. consensus

Which of the following is true of fundamental attribution error?

Which of the following is true of fundamental attribution error?

a. It can easily be applied in Eastern and Western cultures.

b. It can cause people to underestimate the influence of external factors on others.

c. The theory explains why people make errors on the job.

d. It always results in self-service bias.

e. The theory displays our internal biases against making snap judgments.


Answer: b. It can cause people to underestimate the influence of external factors on others.

The perception process is influenced by which of these situation context factors?

The perception process is influenced by which of these situation context factors?

a. Attractiveness

b. Attitude

c. Personality

d. Location

e. Past experience


Answer: d. Location

Which of these is a characteristic of the target being perceived that impacts the perception process?

Which of these is a characteristic of the target being perceived that impacts the perception process?

a. Heat

b. Location

c. Attitude

d. Attractiveness

e. Lighting effect


Answer: d. Attractiveness

Which of these is an individual's personal trait that impacts what is being perceived?

Which of these is an individual's personal trait that impacts what is being perceived?

a. Heat

b. Attractiveness

c. Location

d. Attitude

e. Lighting effect


Answer: d. Attitude

____ refers to a process by which people organize and interpret sensory impressions for the purpose of understanding their environment.

____ refers to a process by which people organize and interpret sensory impressions for the purpose of understanding their environment.

a. Personality

b. Perception

c. Cognition

d. Affect

e. Attitude


Answer: b. Perception

According to the text, our perception are influenced by our ____.

According to the text, our perception are influenced by our ____.

a. objectives

b. decisions

c. expectations

d. attributions

e. problems


Answer: c. expectations

A process by which we shape and interpret sensory impressions in order to give meaning to our environment is ____.

A process by which we shape and interpret sensory impressions in order to give meaning to our environment is ____.

a. determined by our personality, not previous experiences

b. determined solely by the object being examined

c. usually shared by most employees at a firm

d. less important than the objective reality of a situation

e. influenced by the target and the context


Answer: e. influenced by the target and the context

How did PCP users become associated with violent outbursts?

How did PCP users become associated with violent outbursts?

Answer: Most users do not report feeling violent, and in fact report feeling so uncoordinated that they cannot imagine starting a fight. Perhaps the association arises from the anesthetizing effects of PCP such that use of restraints and their associative discomfort, have little effect, and users might not feel pain. But this idea should be considered as no different from trying to restrain a person inebriated on alcohol.

What is angel dust?

What is angel dust?

Answer: PCP crystals sprinkled on marijuana with rapid and potent effects.

How was PCP first discovered?

How was PCP first discovered?

Answer: Parke, Davis & Company were searching for an efficient intravenous anesthetic. Animal studies showed that PCP was a good analgesic, but did not produce good muscle relaxation or sleep. Its first uses as a surgical anesthesia for humans indicated that PCP was a good analgesia without depressing blood circulation or respiration and it did not produce irregularities in heartbeat. Later the patients had no memory of the procedure. Therefore it was deemed medically safe for monkeys, but psychologically troubling for human use.

What are deliriants?

What are deliriants?

Answer: Hallucinogens that are not classified as indole or catechol are classified as deliriants, implying that these drugs have somewhat greater tendency to produce mental confusion and a loss of touch with reality.

How does the potency of DOM compare to Mescaline and LSD?

How does the potency of DOM compare to Mescaline and LSD?

Answer: DOM is about 100 times as potent as mescaline, but only 1/13th as potent as LSD.

What do studies indicate concerning MDMA's effects on brain cells?

What do studies indicate concerning MDMA's effects on brain cells?

Answer: Some studies show that large doses of MDMA given to laboratory animals can destroy serotonin neurons, but the relevance of this unclear. It is important to note that recreational users of MDMA do not use the large doses as seen in laboratory animal studies. Furthermore, in comparisons of users and non-users in cognitive studies, both groups perform equally well.

What is "Suicide Tuesday" and how does it relate to the use of MDMA?

What is "Suicide Tuesday" and how does it relate to the use of MDMA?

Answer: Some users of MDMA report substantially negative mood states in the days immediately following its use. Some have speculated that initially MDMA causes a substantial release of serotonin, followed by a marked reduction of the neurotransmitter, lasting for several hours to days after the last dose. But there is little empirical evidence to support this position, so it is more likely that the depressed state relates to the lack of sleep and low blood sugar.

What are the psychological and physiological effects of MDMA?

What are the psychological and physiological effects of MDMA?

Answer: In young adults its effects are more similar to amphetamine and methamphetamine than to classical hallucinogenics. Psychologically the drug increases sociability and euphoria, and physiologically it increases blood pressure, pulse, and body temperature and decreases appetite and sleep.

What are two synthetic hallucinogens are chemically related to amphetamines?

What are two synthetic hallucinogens are chemically related to amphetamines?

Answer: The molecular structures of MDMA, MDA, DOM and mescaline are similar to amphetamines, and MDMA and MDA are also very similar to methamphetamine and amphetamine structures, respectively.

What is mescaline's mechanism of action on the CNS?

What is mescaline's mechanism of action on the CNS?

Answer: Although mescaline and other catechol hallucinogens have a structure that resembles the catecholamine neurotransmitters, they act indirectly on the serotonin 2A receptors.

How does mescaline tolerance compare to that of LSD?

How does mescaline tolerance compare to that of LSD?

Answer: Tolerance develops more slowly to mescaline than to LSD, but there is cross-tolerance between the two drugs.

What are mescaline's acute toxic effects?

What are mescaline's acute toxic effects?

Answer: In animal studies where doses are 10 to 30 times the dose that causes behavioral effects in humans, death results from convulsions and respiratory arrest.

What are the physiological effects of mescaline?

What are the physiological effects of mescaline?

Answer: Pupil dilation, increase in pulse rate and blood pressure, and an elevation in body temperature, similar to LSD and other alkaloid hallucinogens. There are some signs of central stimulation, such as EEG arousal.

How is mescaline metabolized?

How is mescaline metabolized?

Answer: Mescaline is excreted from the body unchanged in the urine, and the metabolites identified thus fare are not psychoactive.

What are the behavioral effects of mescaline?

What are the behavioral effects of mescaline?

Answer: At lower doses its effects are primarily euphoric, but higher doses give rise to full set of hallucinations.

What is onset of effect and half-life of mescaline?

What is onset of effect and half-life of mescaline?

Answer: Mescaline reaches maximum concentration after 30 to 120 minutes and it has a half life of 6 hours (but there is some evidence that mescaline persists in the brain for up to 10 hours.

What is the pharmacological action of Mescaline?

What is the pharmacological action of Mescaline?

Answer: Mescaline is readily absorbed if taken orally, but does not readily pass the blood-brain barrier, and so high doses are required for its effects.

What religious group legally uses peyote as its sacrament?

What religious group legally uses peyote as its sacrament?

Answer: The Native American Church of the United States use of peyote was protected by the constitutional guarantee of freedom of religion until the Supreme court allowed Oregon to prosecute members for its use; however, Congress amended the American Indian Religion Act of 1978 in order to reverse that decision.

What is the primary psychoactive agent found in peyote?

What is the primary psychoactive agent found in peyote?

Answer: Arthur Heffter isolated mescaline, but it is also important to note that since than more than 30 compounds have been identified in peyote.

How is the group of catechol phantastica distinguished from indole phantastica like LSD?

How is the group of catechol phantastica distinguished from indole phantastica like LSD?

Answer: The psychological effects between the catechol and indole fantastica are similar, but the difference is the catechol nucleus, with that nucleus froming the basic structure of the catecholamine neurotransmitters, norepinephrine and dopamine.

What is Ayahuasca and what are its main components?

What is Ayahuasca and what are its main components?

Answer: Ayahuasca is a psychoactive tea with its main psychoactive component DMT, but unlike DMT, it can be delivered orally as a tea because the tea contains a harmaline, a MAO inhibitor which prevents the degradation of DMT, thereby allowing it to reach the brain.

How is DMT administered and metabolized?

How is DMT administered and metabolized?

Answer: DMT is ineffective when taken orally because it is metabolized by monoamine oxidase (MAO) before it reaches the brain. It is usually snuffed, smoked, or injected and its hallucinogenic effects are experienced within two minutes lasting for less than 30 minutes.

What is DMT and what are its effects?

What is DMT and what are its effects?

Answer: MDT (Dimethyltryptamine) is one of the most important naturally occurring hallucinogenic compounds, and it is one of the active agents in Cohoba snuff used in some So. American and Caribbean indigenous cultures, produces hallucinogenic effects following acute administration and is unique in that tolerance does not develop to his physiological effects.

What were the findings of Albert Hoffman's study of the seeds of the morning glory?

What were the findings of Albert Hoffman's study of the seeds of the morning glory?

Answer: Hoffman found several active alkaloids as well as d-lysergic acid amide, which is about 1/10th as active as LSD.

What are some psychotherapeutic uses of psilocybin?

What are some psychotherapeutic uses of psilocybin?

Answer: It has been suggested for use in treatment of PTSD.

Who is Roland Griffiths and how did his study address the confounds of the Pahnke experiment?

Who is Roland Griffiths and how did his study address the confounds of the Pahnke experiment?

Answer: Roland Griffiths is a Johns Hopkins University scientist and proponent of resuming the pharmacological research of hallucinogenics. He is the lead author of a rigorous test of the acute and long-term effects of psilocybin in adults, and his subjects reported an acute increase in mystical experience and a substantial personal and spiritual experience, with sustained positive changes in attitudes, mood and behavior. His study is one of the few recent research studies of hallucinogens, and his findings replicate the findings of the Pahnke experiment.

What was the goal of Walter Pahnke "Good Friday Experiment"?

What was the goal of Walter Pahnke "Good Friday Experiment"?

Answer: To test psilocybin ability to induce meaningful religious experiences. 20 Christian theology students were assigned to two groups: one received psilocybin, the other received a placebo. The psilocybin group reported mystical experiences, while the control group did not. However, the groups were informed that they would receive psilocybin and so the results could be the result of anticipation and expectation.

What are the long-term subjective effects of psilocybin?

What are the long-term subjective effects of psilocybin?

Answer: Scientific data indicates an absence of subsequent drug abuse, persisting perception disorders, prolonged psychosis or long-term impairment of functioning in any participants.

What is the onset and half-life of psilocybin?

What is the onset and half-life of psilocybin?

Answer: The onset is about seven hours after drug administration, and the effects are transient, lasting no more than a day after ingestion.

What are the acute effects of psilocybin?

What are the acute effects of psilocybin?

Answer: A growing number of studies have shown that following acute administration of oral doses ranging from 0.045 to 0.314 mg/kg, psilocybin does dependently induces intense changes in mood, perception and thought. The most frequently reported acute negative drug reactions are strong feelings of dysphoria and anxiety, and after taking large doses some users have reported headaches.

What are the psychoactive effects of psilocybin?

What are the psychoactive effects of psilocybin?

Answer: The hallucinogenic effects of psilocybin are quite similar to those of LSD and the catechol hallucinogen mescaline,m and cross-tolerance exists among these three agents.

What scientist isolated the primary active agent of the Psilocybe mexicana, the most well-known psychoactive mushroom?

What scientist isolated the primary active agent of the Psilocybe mexicana, the most well-known psychoactive mushroom?

Answer: Albert Hoffman, the "father of LSD", isolated psilocybin in 1958 and later synthesized this indole agent.

What are some possible psychotherapeutic and medical uses for LSD?

What are some possible psychotherapeutic and medical uses for LSD?

Answer: Preliminary studies suggest that LSD could be useful for treatment of alcoholism. Also it has been reported to be useful for the reduction of cluster headaches.

What effects does LSD have on creativity?

What effects does LSD have on creativity?

Answer: There is no good evidence to suggest that LSD increases creativity.

What are some of the adverse reactions to LSD ingestion emphasized in popular and scientific literature?

What are some of the adverse reactions to LSD ingestion emphasized in popular and scientific literature?

Answer: Flashbacks, called "Hallucinogenic Persisting Perception Disorder" in DSM-V. A more common adverse effect is the panic reaction. These adverse effects are non-life threatening.

When does the peak effect of LSD kick in?

When does the peak effect of LSD kick in?

Answer: About one hour after ingestion intoxication peaks, but it is not until the second hour that changes occur in perceptions of self.

What is the effective dose of LSD and how long do the drug's effects typically last?

What is the effective dose of LSD and how long do the drug's effects typically last?

Answer: An effective dose of 30 to 100 mg taken orally will last approximately six to nine hours and it can be greatly attenuated at any time through the administration of chlorpromazine intramuscularly.

What are the common LSD-related effects?

What are the common LSD-related effects?

Answer: Modification of visual images, altered sense of time, changes is the perception of one's own body, some alteration of auditory imput, synethesia (mixing of the senses) where sounds might appear as visual images. These varieties of altered perception are often accompanied by enhanced emotionality.

What is the mechanism of action on CSN of LSD?

What is the mechanism of action on CSN of LSD?

Answer: LSD molecules resemble the chemical structure of serotonin and so it is thought that the drug acts upon the serotonin receptors to produce its effects. Evidence (from animal studies) suggests that LSD and several other hallucinogens, including mescalin and psilocybin, act by stimulating the serotonin-2A subtype receptors.

What are the typical autonomic signs that appear after ingestion of LSD?

What are the typical autonomic signs that appear after ingestion of LSD?

Answer: LSD is a sympathomimetic with the typical symptoms including dilated pupils, elevated temperature and blood pressure, and an increase in salivation.

Can use of LSD lead to tolerance or dependence?

Can use of LSD lead to tolerance or dependence?

Answer: Tolerance develops rapidly, usually within 3-4 days if the drug is taken daily on multiple occasions. Cross-tolerance has been shown among LSD, mescalin, and psilocybin. BUT physical dependence to LSD or any of the hallucinogens has not been demonstrated.

How is LSD metabolized?

How is LSD metabolized?

Answer: Following ingestion, the brain contains less LSD than any of the other organs in the body, so it is not selectively taken up by the brain. Half of the LSD in the blood is metabolized every 3 hours, so blood levels decrease fairly rapidly. LSD is metabolized in the liver and excreted as 2-oxy-lysergic acid diethylamide, which is inactive.

What is the typical delivery method of LSD?

What is the typical delivery method of LSD?

Answer: LSD is usually taken by mouth and is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract.

Being one of the most potent psycho chemicals known, how toxic is LSD?

Being one of the most potent psycho chemicals known, how toxic is LSD?

Answer: Pharmacologically, LSD is the most potent drug, it takes little LSD to produce effects, but there have been no links to even one instance of human overdose death.

Are natural hallucinogens less toxic than the synthetic ones?

Are natural hallucinogens less toxic than the synthetic ones?

Answer: Hallucinogenic drug toxicity is primarily related to the dose ingested regardless of whether the drug is natural or synthetic.

In the 1960s what were some of the unsubstantiated claims associated with LSD use?

In the 1960s what were some of the unsubstantiated claims associated with LSD use?

Answer: Concerns about "bad trips", psychotic reactions, potential chromosome damage, self-injurious behavior, and "flashbacks" caused many people to begin to avoid LSD and other synthetic hallucinogens in favor of naturally occurring ones like psilocybin and mescaline.

When did LSD use peak?

When did LSD use peak?

Answer: LSD use peaked in 1967 and 1968, after which its use tapered off.

Who was Timothy Leary and how did he contribute to the research of LSD and psilocybin?

Who was Timothy Leary and how did he contribute to the research of LSD and psilocybin?

Answer: Leary was a Harvard scientist who came under criticism for his scientifically unsound research methods and ethically questionable behaviors in service to the study of hallucinogens. After being forced to leave Harvard he founded his own religion, the League of Spiritual Discovery with the motto "Turn on, tune in, and drop out" and LSD was the sacrament.

What research did the U.S. military perform with LSD and other hallucinogens, and why was it discontinued?

What research did the U.S. military perform with LSD and other hallucinogens, and why was it discontinued?

Answer: Between 1950s and 1960s, hundreds of soldiers and civilians were unwittingly administered does of these drugs. The goal of the military was to determine LSD's usefulness as a truth serum and also as a means of controlling opposing forces by disorientation. Most of the unwitting subjects of these trials were novices, and so felt like they were loosing their minds. Some suffered long-term psychiatric disturbances and other had difficulty adjusting to the usual lives. The practice was unethical and the U.S. government was required to pay compensation.

When and why did the scientific study of LSD and other hallucinogens decline?

When and why did the scientific study of LSD and other hallucinogens decline?

Answer: In 1974 a report by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) stated that their research had contributed little to the understanding of the "bizarre and potent effects of this drug" and consequently it stopped its in-house research as well as stopped funding university human research. In 1975 the National Cancer Institute and the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism stopped supporting research. Since then only animal studies have continued to better understand the mechanism of action at a neural level.

In the early years how did psychotherapists use LSD with their clients?

In the early years how did psychotherapists use LSD with their clients?

Answer: Used as a modern truth serum, replacing sodium pentothal, scopolamine, and amphetamines when patients hit psychological road blocks.

What person first synthesized LSD?

What person first synthesized LSD?

Answer: LSD was first synthesized by Dr. Albert Hoffman, in 1938, when he was working as a scientist at Sandoz Laboratories in Basel, Switzerland, but the drug did not enter the psychopharmacology until Hoffman recorded his LSD-induced experiences. The dose that Hoffman took was 5 to 8 times the normal effective dose. He became a cult hero among LSD enthusiasts and he remained a steadfast proponent for the use of LSD as a valuable psychotherapeutic tool for enhancing humans' understanding of their place in nature.

How was LSD originally synthesized?

How was LSD originally synthesized?

Answer: LSD was originally synthesized from ergot alkaloids extracted from the ergot fungus Claviceps purpurea. This mold occasionally grows on grain, especially rye, and eating infected grain results in an illness called ergotism.

What is the most potent of the hallucinogen drugs?

What is the most potent of the hallucinogen drugs?

Answer: d-Lyergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD).

What are the two major classes of phantastica?

What are the two major classes of phantastica?

Answer: The indole and catechol hallucinogens, grouped according to their chemical structures.

What are entactogens?

What are entactogens?

Answer: Substances, such as MDMA, that are said to enhance feelings of empathy.

What are entheogens?

What are entheogens?

Answer: Substances (i.e. sacred mushrooms) that are thought to create spiritual or religious experiences.

What are the seven active ingredients found in different combinations in OTC stimulants, sleep aids, weight-control, analgesics, cold, cough, allergy and sinus medications?

What are the seven active ingredients found in different combinations in OTC stimulants, sleep aids, weight-control, analgesics, cold, cough, allergy and sinus medications?

1. Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA, aspirin): analgesic, antipyretic
2. Acetaminophen: analgesic-antipyretic
3. Caffeine: stimulant
4. Chlorpheniramine maleate: antihistamine
5. Dextromethorphan: antitussive
6. Diphenhydramine: antihistamine
7. Phenylephrine: sympathomimetic
8. Pseudoephedrine: sympathomimetic in behind-the-counter" drugs

What does FDA advise concerning the use of cold medications with children?

What does FDA advise concerning the use of cold medications with children?

Answer: Warns parents not to give OTC cold products to children under the age of 2 and to use with caution for children up to the age of 11

What does FDA have to say about antihistamines and the treatment of colds?

What does FDA have to say about antihistamines and the treatment of colds?

Answer: FDA advisory panel finds not conclusive data for antihistamines effectiveness with cold, but does find effectiveness as allergy medication

What is the best way to reduce the risk of catching a cold?

What is the best way to reduce the risk of catching a cold?

Answer: Wash hands

What causes soreness and swelling of mucous membranes with a cold?

What causes soreness and swelling of mucous membranes with a cold?

Answer: Rhinoviruses zero in on upper respiratory tract, causing first irritation that leads to coughing and sneezing, with increased irritation inflaming tissues, followed by soreness and swelling of the mucous membrane. Mucous membranes release considerable fluid as a defense against infection

What two groups of viruses are known to be associated with colds?

What two groups of viruses are known to be associated with colds?

Answer: Rhinoviruses and coronaviruses

What causes the common cold and why is it so difficult to find a cure?

What causes the common cold and why is it so difficult to find a cure?

Answer: Viruses, with more than a hundred having been identified

What are the four things you need to know to avoid colds?

What are the four things you need to know to avoid colds?

Answer:

1. Up to 100 times as many viruses are produced and shed from the nasal mucosa as from the throat
2. Few viruses are in the saliva of a person with a cold
3.Dried viruses survive on dry skin and non-porous surfaces for over 3 hours
4. Most cold viruses enter the body via nostrils or eyes

What active ingredient used in many cold medications has been used recreationally to produce psychoactive effects?

What active ingredient used in many cold medications has been used recreationally to produce psychoactive effects?

Answer: the cough suppressant dextromethorphan - robotripping

What are the three most common active ingredients in cold/flu medication?

What are the three most common active ingredients in cold/flu medication?

Answer:

1.Antihistamines (for temporary relief of runny nose and sneezing) Chlorpheniramine maleate
2.Sympathomimetic nasal decongestants (for temporary relief of swollen membranes in the nasal passages) Phenylephrine
3.Analgesic-antipyretics (for temporary relief of aches and pains and fever reduction) most commonly, Acetaminophen
*Also some contain the anti-tussive cough suppressant dextromethorphan

What was the controversy surrounding the NSAID Vioxx being pulled from the market by the FDA?

What was the controversy surrounding the NSAID Vioxx being pulled from the market by the FDA?

Answer: As an anti-inflammatory, Vioxx produced half as many gastric ulcers as non-specific inhibitors such as aspirin, and did not inhibit aggregation of blood platelets like aspirin, but Vioxx was pulled from the market when it became clear that Vioxx actually increased the risk of heart attack relative to placebo

What are the negative side effects of both acetaminophen and ibuprofen, not found with aspirin?

What are the negative side effects of both acetaminophen and ibuprofen, not found with aspirin?

Answer: Both acetaminophen and ibuprofen have been shown to produce liver damage (when taken in excess of recommended dose)

How is ibuprofen classified differently than aspirin or acetaminophen?

How is ibuprofen classified differently than aspirin or acetaminophen?

Answer: Ibuprofen acts as both an analgesic and an anti-inflammatory, and is classified as a NSAID, non steroidal anti-inflammatory drug

What are the adverse side effects of acetaminophen?

What are the adverse side effects of acetaminophen?

Answer: Overuse can cause liver disorders and has now surpassed aspirin for both drug-related emergency room visits and death in DAWN statistics

What is the difference between acetaminophen and aspirin?

What is the difference between acetaminophen and aspirin?

Answer: Acetaminophen (Tylenol and Datril) have the analgesic and antipyretic actions of aspirin, but it does not have the anti-inflammatory action of aspirin

What is the mechanism of the antipyretic action of aspirin?

What is the mechanism of the antipyretic action of aspirin?

Answer: A specific prostaglandin acts on the anterior hypothalamus to decrease heat dissipation through the normal procedures of sweating and dilation of peripheral blood vessels, but Aspirin blocks the synthesis of this prostaglandin in the anterior hypothalamus, and this is followed by increased heat loss.

What is the mechanism of the analgesic action of aspirin?

What is the mechanism of the analgesic action of aspirin?

Answer: Prostaglandins are local hormones that are manufactured and released when cell membranes are distorted and damages (injured). These prostaglandins act on the endings of the neurons that mediate pain in the injured areas, sensitizing the neurons to mechanical stimulation and to stimulation by two other local hormones, histamine and bradykinin (which are more slowly released from the damaged tissue). Aspirin blocks the synthesis of the prostaglandins by inhibiting two forms of the cyclooxygenase enzyme (COX-1 and COX-2), thus reducing pain.

On what list does aspirin along with acetaminophen and ibuprofen appear?

On what list does aspirin along with acetaminophen and ibuprofen appear?

Answer: DAWN's emergency room data, for accidental or deliberate poisonings

What is Reye's syndrome and how is it linked to aspirin?

What is Reye's syndrome and how is it linked to aspirin?

Answer: Reye's syndrome is a rare disease occurring in people under the age of 20 usually after a viral infection such as influenza or chicken pox with an overall mortality rate of 25%. Aspirin use for treating the discomfort of influenza and chicken pox can increase the risk of Reye's syndrome as much as 25 times.

How is the adverse effect of aspirin used to benefit certain populations?

How is the adverse effect of aspirin used to benefit certain populations?

Answer: The anticoagulant effects of aspirin has the potentially beneficial effect in preventing heart attacks and strokes

What are the adverse effects of aspirin?

What are the adverse effects of aspirin?

Answer: Increases bleeding time by inhibiting blood platelet aggregation, will induce gastrointestinal bleeding in about 70 percent of normal subjects

What does aspirin exert its antipyretic action?

What does aspirin exert its antipyretic action?

Answer: Aspirin decreases body temperature (only if temperature is elevated above the normal range) by acting upon the temperature regulating area of the hypothalamus to increase heat loss through peripheral mechanisms, that is, increasing the vasodilation of peripheral blood vessels and through increased perspiration. Heat production is not changed but heat loss is facilitated so that body temperature can go down.

What is the onset of action and metabolic rate of aspirin?

What is the onset of action and metabolic rate of aspirin?

Answer: Pain relief is experienced about 1 hour after taking and lasts for up to 4 hours

What is the therapeutic dose of aspirin?

What is the therapeutic dose of aspirin?

Answer: 600 to 1000 mg (increasing the dose beyond that level does not increase aspirin's analgesic action)

What are the three clinical effects of Aspirin?

What are the three clinical effects of Aspirin?

Answer:

1. It is an analgesic that effectively blocks somatic pain in the mild-to-moderate range
2. It is an antipyretic that reduces fever
3. It is an anti-inflammatory agent that reduces swelling, inflammation and soreness in an injured area

What product was synthesized from salicylic acid for treatment of somatic pain without the negative side effects of stomach upset?

What product was synthesized from salicylic acid for treatment of somatic pain without the negative side effects of stomach upset?

Answer: Acetylsalicylic acid (by German chemist Hoffman for BAYER company) was tested, patented and released for sale in 1899 as Aspirin

What is the active ingredient of willow bark that was isolated and identified in 1800s?

What is the active ingredient of willow bark that was isolated and identified in 1800s?

Answer: Salicylic acid (and synthesized to produce sodium salicylate)

What herb was used to treat somatic pain by ancient Greeks and Native Americans?

What herb was used to treat somatic pain by ancient Greeks and Native Americans?

Answer: Willow Bark

What class of drug is typically reduces somatic pain?

What class of drug is typically reduces somatic pain?

Answer: Salicylates (aspirin) and related products

What class of drug best treats visceral pain?

What class of drug best treats visceral pain?

Answer: Opioids

What are the two different classifications of pain?

What are the two different classifications of pain?

Answer: Visceral pain (e.g. intestinal cramps, and pain arising from non-skeletal portions of the body)
Somatic pain (e.g. pain arising from muscles, bones, and typified by sprains, headaches, and arthritis)

What two groups of drugs are analgesics divided into?

What two groups of drugs are analgesics divided into?

Answer: Opioids and internal analgesics (aspirin, acetaminophen and ibuprofen

What are the two major classes of drugs that reduce pain?

What are the two major classes of drugs that reduce pain?

Answer: Anesthetics and analgesics

What ingredient is now used in sleep aid products like Sominex and Sleep-Eze

What ingredient is now used in sleep aid products like Sominex and Sleep-Eze

Answer: Diphenhydramine

What two active ingredient were used in many sleep aids?

What two active ingredient were used in many sleep aids?

Answer: The acetylcholine receptor blocker, scopolamine and the antihistamine methapyrilene, but both are no longer used

How does Orlistat act as a weight-loss product?

How does Orlistat act as a weight-loss product?

Answer: Works in the intestine, inhibiting an enzyme that breaks down dietary fats so that some of the fat in foods it passed out through the feces

What is the only FDA approved OTC weight-loss product currently on the market?

What is the only FDA approved OTC weight-loss product currently on the market?

Answer: Orlistat (brand name allie)

What active ingredient of weight-loss products (now banned) was used despite only small effect on appetite suppression?

What active ingredient of weight-loss products (now banned) was used despite only small effect on appetite suppression?

Answer: PPA phenylpropanolamine, (negative side effects in women show increased risk of hemorrhagic stroke)

What is the only active ingredient that FDA approves of for use in OTC stimulants like NoDoz and Vivarin?

What is the only active ingredient that FDA approves of for use in OTC stimulants like NoDoz and Vivarin?

Answer: Caffeine (NoDoz 100 mg per tablet, equal to one cup of coffee, Vivarin 200 mg per tablet)

What specific influence did the revised PATRIOT Act have on the OTC drug industry?

What specific influence did the revised PATRIOT Act have on the OTC drug industry?

Answer: Required that OTC products containing pseudoephedrine be removed from shelves and kept "behind the counter" so that consumers have to show photo ID and sign a log in order to purchase (due to pseudoephedrine's use in meth production)

What is the function of the FDA's Nonprescription Drug Advisory Committee?

What is the function of the FDA's Nonprescription Drug Advisory Committee?

Answer: To advise on categories of drugs in order to move many more drugs from prescription status to OTC status

What rule did the FDA set up to reduce confusion and make it more likely that consumers could understand OTC drug labels?

What rule did the FDA set up to reduce confusion and make it more likely that consumers could understand OTC drug labels?

Answer: FDA set up uniform standards for labels, with minimum print size, topics in consistent order and bold bulleted headings with clearer more concise language

What method did the FDA finally employ in order to review the safety of the hundreds of thousands of OTC medications?

What method did the FDA finally employ in order to review the safety of the hundreds of thousands of OTC medications?

Answer: FDA divided the OTC products into 26 classes and appointed an advisory panel for each class to look at the active ingredients and decide whether evidence indicated the safety and efficacy of each.

What amendment enacted in 1962 that required all OTC drugs be evaluated for safety and efficacy?

What amendment enacted in 1962 that required all OTC drugs be evaluated for safety and efficacy?

Answer: Kefauver-Harris Amendment

What are the two biggest markets of OTC in U.S.?

What are the two biggest markets of OTC in U.S.?

Answer: Aspirin-like analgesics and cough,cold and flu products

How much do Americans spend per year on OTC?

How much do Americans spend per year on OTC?

Answer: $18 billion

How much did Herbalife report making in 2011?

How much did Herbalife report making in 2011?

Answer: The multi-level marketing system brought in $3.5 billion in worldwide sales in 2011

What product was removed from Herbalife weight loss supplement?

What product was removed from Herbalife weight loss supplement?

Answer: Ma huang (which contained the now-banned product ephedra) was removed and now the product lists green tea

What has conditions has Ginkgo Biloba been used to treat?

What has conditions has Ginkgo Biloba been used to treat?

Answer: Used as a blood thinner that has some influence on memory-impaired older adults (but combined with other blood thinners could be dangerous)

What has conditions has SAMe been used to treat?

What has conditions has SAMe been used to treat?

Answer: Acts as a "methyl donor" and found to be approximately as effective as antidepressant medications, esp. when combined with prescription antidepressants there is seen a more rapid remission of symptoms

What conditions has Saint-John's-wort been used to treat?

What conditions has Saint-John's-wort been used to treat?

Answer: Anxiety and depression (300 to 1000 mg superior to placebo), (but there is some concern about adverse interaction with other drugs)

What Senator introduced (then withdrew) a "Dietary Supplement Safety Act" that would require manufacturers to register with the FDA and provide a complete list of ingredients?

What Senator introduced (then withdrew) a "Dietary Supplement Safety Act" that would require manufacturers to register with the FDA and provide a complete list of ingredients?

Answer: Senator John McCain

What are the 12 Supplements To Avoid that the textbook lists?

What are the 12 Supplements To Avoid that the textbook lists?

Answer:

Aconite
Bitter Orange
Chaparral
Colloidal Silver
Coltsfoot
Comfrey
Country Mallow
Germanium
Greater Celandine
Kava
Lobelia
Yohimbe

What chemical in red yeast rice is used in treatment of high cholesterol, and what are its negative side effects?

What chemical in red yeast rice is used in treatment of high cholesterol, and what are its negative side effects?

Answer: Lovastatin can produce possible kidney impairment and adversely react with other types of drugs.

What additional authority did Congress grant the FDA in 2006-7 regarding their regulation of dietary supplements?

What additional authority did Congress grant the FDA in 2006-7 regarding their regulation of dietary supplements?

Answer: "Adverse Events Reporting" process requires the manufacturer to provide the consumer with address where they can send reports of adverse events occurring and the manufacturer must compile and forward these reports to the FDA

What does "Good Manufacturing Practices" (2007) rules allow the FDA

What does "Good Manufacturing Practices" (2007) rules allow the FDA

1. Requires food makers to establish procedures to ensure products contain what they say and are not adulterated
2. Each manufacture will decide what procedures to follow to ensure that pesticides, fertilizers, etc do not get mixed into ingredients (in other words, the manufacturer's are self-regulated)
3. FDA will spot check to see if these practices are being followed

What event caused FDA to prohibit sale of ephedra?

What event caused FDA to prohibit sale of ephedra?

Answer: Death of baseball pitcher Steve Bechler, but it took 10 years for the FDA to compile the evidence

What kind of financial growth has been seen in the dietary supplement market?

What kind of financial growth has been seen in the dietary supplement market?

Answer:

1992 $3.5 million
1995 $11 million
2007 $24.7 million
Greater than the market for OTC drugs like aspirin and cough/cold medications

What act of Congress passed in 1994 clarified the roll of the FDA in regulating dietary supplements?

What act of Congress passed in 1994 clarified the roll of the FDA in regulating dietary supplements?

Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA)

1.Redefined dietary supplements to include herbs, amino acids, concentrates and extracts of herbs
2.Altered the definition of safety so the FDA could only declare a product "adulterated" if it presents a significant and unreasonable risk of illness or injury
3.Any new new ingredient introduced after 1994 would need to be accompanied by evidence of safety
4.Statements can be made indicating the beneficial effects of the supplement on some structure or function of the body or on "well being", but cannot claim to be a cure
5.Packaging must include a disclaimer that the product has not been evaluated by the FDA

What two important actions did the FDA take in 1993 to better regulate dietary supplements?

What two important actions did the FDA take in 1993 to better regulate dietary supplements?

Answer:

1. Approved seven health claims that food manufacturers could use if their product met certain requirements (e.g. foods high in calcium could claim that product reduced the risk of osteoporosis)

2.Released a publication "Unsubstantiated Claims and Documented Health Hazards in Dietary Supplement Marketplace" that outlined specific enforcement actions that could be exercised against manufacturers that violated existing laws

What information is included on a container of Saint-John's-wort that distinguishes it from other OTC drugs?

What information is included on a container of Saint-John's-wort that distinguishes it from other OTC drugs?

Answer: Saint-John's-wort is sold as a dietary supplement and so will show "Nutritional Information", "Serving Size" (rather than dosage), and there will be no claim that the product is good for treating depression or insomnia